Lexical Features

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Word Formation

Word formation is not only about vocabulary building. It also creates stylistic effects.

Process	Examples	Stylistic Effect
Coinage	brand names, fictional terms	novelty (creativeness, attractiveness)
Compounding	blackboard, newspaper, smartphone	concise, compact, information-dense
Derivation / Affixation	unhappy, rewrite, purification	precise, logical, technical, objective
Blending	brunch, smog, infotainment, chatbot	short, memorable, catchy, creative, informal, lively
Clipping	gym, lab, prof, doc, info, fridge	casual, concise, conversational, relaxed, convenient
Abbreviation	BBC, GDP, NASA, UNESCO, CEO, DIY	formality and stability (or informality)
Borrowing	sushi, pizza, kung fu	exotic, cultural, international
Calque	hot dog, skyscraper, lose face	native-looking, neutral, natural

Example

Affix	Meaning	Example
anti-	against	antibiotic
micro-	very small	microprocessor
hyper-	excessive / above normal	hypertension
bio-	life	biodiversity
eco-	environment	ecosystem
-meter	measuring instrument	thermometer

• Initialism: pronounced letter by letter, e.g. BBC, GDP, FBI, WHO.
• Acronym: pronounced as a word, e.g. NASA, UNESCO, NATO, FIFA.

Word Types

Type	Members
Content words	nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
Function words	auxiliaries, prepositions, articles, pronouns, conjunctions

Type, Token, TTR

• Token: every actual word occurrence in a text; repetitions count.
• Type: each distinct word form; repetitions count once.
• TTR: Type-Token Ratio, a rough measure of lexical diversity.

\[\text{TTR} = \frac{\text{Types}}{\text{Tokens}}\]

Example

The room was white and the bed was white.

• Tokens: 9
• Types: 6 (the, room, was, white, and, bed)
• TTR: \(6/9 = 0.667\)

Adjectives

Identify the adjectives, calculate the proportion, and consider the effect of this feature.

Example

Babbitt

Item	Analysis
Adjective ratio	19 / 135 = 14%
Fields	size, color, shape, design, fabric, taste
Effect	excessive detail, vanity, conformism, lack of personality

The Handmaid's Tale

Item	Analysis
Adjective ratio	10 / 178 = 6%
Repetition	white, same, blank, single
Effect	bare room, little human touch, deprivation and denial

Nouns

Kind	Examples	Effect
Concrete nouns	race, battle, bread	vivid, concrete, specific
Abstract nouns	consideration, phenomenon, conclusion	general, formal, conceptual / vague, distant
Nominalization	improve → improvement; complex → complexity	abstract, impersonal, academic

Nominalization:

• more abstract
• more impersonal
• more formal / academic
• sometimes more precise
• overuse: heavy, less direct, bureaucratic, vague

Verbs

Observe:

• action / state / process / causative verbs
• active vs. passive voice
• transitive vs. intransitive verbs
• phrasal verbs

Example

Pincher Martin

• Verbs: kick, swing, grind, scrabble, heave, spit, snarl, fall, haul, slide, stumble.
• Effect: struggling, painful, physical; much motion, little control over the world.
• Pattern: often bodily, intransitive, reflexive, trapped in the self.

The Old Man and the Sea

• Verbs: see, raise, bring, slam, feel, strike.
• Effect: strong, resolute, controlled, action-driven.
• Pattern: transitive actions applied to the world.

Word Origin

Origin	Features	Style
Germanic	basic vocabulary; 1 or 2 syllables; short and easy	concrete, direct, forceful, vivid
Latinate	multisyllabic, abstract, derivational	fancy, elegant, urban, educated, formal

Example

Germanic	Latinate
get	acquire
meet	encounter
tell	inform
buy	purchase
leave	depart
try	attempt
choose	select
eat	consume
help	assist

Orwell's contrast:

• Germanic-heavy: race, battle, bread, time, chance.
• Latinate-heavy: objective, considerations, contemporary, phenomena, conclusion.

Formality

More Latinate and multisyllabic words usually increase formality.

Example

Two letters.

Measure	Text A	Text B
Latinate words	25% (33/133)	16% (19/122)
Multisyllabic Latinate words	8% (10/133)	4% (5/122)
Style	formal, official	personal, conversational

• Text A: received your reply, incurred, proceeded, at your earliest convenience.
• Text B: heard from you, gone ahead, get the money in, soon.

Macbeth

The multitudinous seas incarnadine,

Making the green one red.

• Germanic/concrete: knocking, noise, hands, eyes, wash, blood, hand, green, red.
• Elevated/Latinate/classical: Neptune, multitudinous, incarnadine.
• Effect: bodily guilt + tragic grandeur.

Template

word formation:
word types:
- adjectives:
- nouns:
- verbs:
word origin:
style:
effect:

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